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Chemical Compound Review:

AC1L22WP (2S)-6-amino-2-[[(4S)-4- amino-4-carboxy...

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Disease relevance of epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine

RESULTS: Expression of tTgase and epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine was present in all failed blebs [1].
Following the isolation of the N epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine-containing polymers from human cataracts, our efforts were directed to induce such cross-links experimentally in rabbit lens, and evidence was obtained for the selective reactivities of certain beta-crystallin subunits in this transglutaminase-catalyzed event [2].
Transglutaminases are a family of enzymes that catalyze the formation of epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine isopeptide bonds in proteins, an activity that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of cartilage matrix mineralization in degenerative arthritis [3].
Increases in renal epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine crosslinks result from compartment-specific changes in tissue transglutaminase in early experimental diabetic nephropathy: pathologic implications [4].
During the involution of lead nitrate-induced hyperplasia in rat liver a significant increase of transglutaminase activity, enzyme concentration, transglutaminase messenger RNA and protein-bound epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine (product of transglutaminase action) coincided with programmed death (apoptosis) of hepatocytes [5].

Psychiatry related information on epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine

We investigated the hypothesis that excessive deposition of epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine bonds is a neuropathological mechanism which induces the polymerization of tau protein into stable aggregates leading to the formation of paired helical filaments (PHFs) which deposit into neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain [6].

High impact information on epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine

Fibrin epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine crosslink acceleration by red blood cells [7].
The complex of prolactin with IgG was purified from serum by anti-human prolactin affinity chromatography and was shown to contain close to 1 mole of N epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine crosslinks per mole of complex, a characteristic feature in structures crosslinked by transglutaminase [8].
Transglutaminase 2 (TGase 2), or tissue transglutaminase, catalyzes either epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine or N(1), N(8)-(gamma-glutamyl)spermidine isopeptide bonds [9].
The cornified envelope (CE) is an insoluble sheath of epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine cross-linked protein, which is deposited beneath the plasma membrane during keratinocyte terminal differentiation [10].
Furthermore, we have isolated four peptides from purified human cell envelopes that contain recognizable loricrin sequences and which are cross-linked by the N epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine isodipeptide bond [11].

Biological context of epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine

Acid hydrolysis of the purified epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine yielded equimolar amounts of lysine and glutamic acid, and end group analysis of the peptide by dansylation (application of 5-dimethylaminonaphthalene-1-sulfonyl) confirmed the isomer assignment to be epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine [12].
The product of the TGase-catalyzed reaction was localized in molting L3 to cuticle regions where the separation between the old and new cuticles occurs and in the amphids of L3 by a monoclonal antibody that reacts specifically with the isopeptide epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine [13].
CONCLUSIONS: Irreversible protein cross-linking of transglutaminases via epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine connections seem to be indicators for scarring in corneal wound healing [14].
This is based on mRNA and protein studies, sense and antisense transfection, identification of N epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine cross-links in extracted apoptotic bodies, and in blue mouse experiments [15].

Anatomical context of epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine

Our laboratory previously demonstrated that huntingtin protein colocalizes with transglutaminase 2 and its product, the epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine bond in intranuclear inclusions in HD frontal cortex [16].
In experimental renal scarring, the protein cross-linking enzyme, tissue transglutaminase (tTg), is up-regulated and externalized causing an increase in its crosslink product, epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine, in the extracellular space [4].
Membranes isolated from the red cells of a Hb-Koln patient were shown to contain appreciable amounts of N epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine, the characteristic product of the post-translational cross-linking of proteins by transglutaminase [17].
epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine isopeptide bonds in normal and virus transformed human fibroblasts [18].
The microfibrils are covalently crosslinked by epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine at a concentration of 3.725 nmol/mg dry weight of purified insoluble material [19].

Associations of epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine with other chemical compounds

Consistent with previous reports, we found that both tTG and its substrate-characteristic N(epsilon)-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine crosslink are increased in PD nigral dopamine neurons [20].

Gene context of epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine

Localization of tissue transglutaminase (tTgase), its reaction product epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine, and fibronectin was investigated immunohistochemically [21].
Subsequently, both proteins become cross-linked by the activity of transglutaminases TGK/E as major components of the cornified cell envelope by N epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine isopeptide bonds [22].
Subsequently, loricrin becomes cross-linked by the activity of transglutaminases TGK/E as a major component of the cornified cell envelope by N epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine isopeptide bonds [23].
METHODS: Expression of tTgase, its reaction product epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine, and fibronectin and their colocalization were investigated immunohistochemically in failed blebs and in an in vitro trabeculectomy model [1].
In the in vitro trabeculectomy model, tTgase and epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine were barely present at the incision side of the flap but were perspicuously increased by TGF-beta2 treatment [1].

Analytical, diagnostic and therapeutic context of epsilon-(gamma-Glutamyl)lysine

The S-carboxymethylated fractions were enzymatically digested with pronase, carboxypeptidase A and B, leucine aminopeptidase and prolidase, and epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine isolated from digests by gel filtration and cation ion exchange chromatography [12].
Colonic location of transglutaminases and their reaction products, the epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine bonds, was evaluated by immunohistochemistry using specific monoclonal antibodies [24].
Whole kidney epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine (HPLC analysis) was significantly increased from Day 90 (+337%) and peaked at Day 120 (+650%) (p < 0.05) [4].
The absence of transglutaminases and their reaction product epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine in a LASIK-treated cornea supports the idea of missing scar tissue formation after LASIK surgery [14].
RESULTS: Immunofluorescent analysis of human biopsies (confocal microscopy) showed increases in levels of tTg (+1,266%, p < 0.001) and epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine (+486%, p < 0.001) in kidneys with DN compared to normal [25].

References

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Acceptor-donor relationships in the transglutaminase-mediated cross-linking of lens beta-crystallin subunits. Velasco, P.T., Lorand, L. Biochemistry (1987) [Pubmed]
Regulation of transglutaminase activity in articular chondrocytes through thrombin receptor-mediated factor XIII synthesis. Rosenthal, A.K., Mosesson, M.W., Gohr, C.M., Masuda, I., Heinkel, D., Seibenlist, K.R. Thromb. Haemost. (2004) [Pubmed]
Increases in renal epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine crosslinks result from compartment-specific changes in tissue transglutaminase in early experimental diabetic nephropathy: pathologic implications. Skill, N.J., Griffin, M., El Nahas, A.M., Sanai, T., Haylor, J.L., Fisher, M., Jamie, M.F., Mould, N.N., Johnson, T.S. Lab. Invest. (2001) [Pubmed]
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Prolactin-immunoglobulin G complexes from human serum act as costimulatory ligands causing proliferation of malignant B lymphocytes. Walker, A.M., Montgomery, D.W., Saraiya, S., Ho, T.W., Garewal, H.S., Wilson, J., Lorand, L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (1995) [Pubmed]
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Absence of scar formation in human donor cornea with prior laser in situ keratomileusis. Priglinger, S.G., May, C.A., Alge, C.S., Wolf, A., Neubauer, A.S., Kampik, A., Welge-Luessen, U. Journal of cataract and refractive surgery. (2005) [Pubmed]
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