Disease relevance of patulin

• Human exposure to patulin can lead to serious health problems, and according to a long-term investigation in rats, the World Health Organization has set a tolerable weekly intake of 7 ppb body weight [1].
• This epoxyquinone possessed an antibiotic activity against Bacillus subtilis which was approximately 80% of that exhibited by patulin [2].
• The acute toxicities of patulin and of the adduct mixture were also compared using NMRI mice [3].
• DNA-damaging activity of patulin in Escherichia coli [4].
• Biotransformation of Patulin by Gluconobacter oxydans [5].

Psychiatry related information on patulin

• When the percentage of patulin remaining was plotted versus reaction time, apparent first-order reaction plots were obtained [6].

High impact information on patulin

• Germinating grass pollen also secretes an unusual expansin that loosens maternal cell walls to aid penetration of the stigma by the pollen tube [7].
• During growth, plant cells secrete a protein called expansin, which unlocks the network of wall polysaccharides, permitting turgor-driven cell enlargement [7].
• Regulation of expansin gene expression affects growth and development in transgenic rice plants [8].
• Regulation of root hair initiation and expansin gene expression in Arabidopsis [9].
• The expression of two Arabidopsis expansin genes (AtEXP7 and AtEXP18) is tightly linked to root hair initiation; thus, the regulation of these genes was studied to elucidate how developmental, hormonal, and environmental factors orchestrate root hair formation [9].

Chemical compound and disease context of patulin

• Comparison of the toxicities of patulin and patulin adducts formed with cysteine [3].
• In the presence of NADPH and CuCl2, patulin induced the cleavage of ColE1 DNA and lambda phage DNA in vitro [10].
• Induction of micronuclei and chromosomal aberrations by the mycotoxin patulin in mammalian cells: role of ascorbic acid as a modulator of patulin clastogenicity [11].
• Neither patulin nor the adduct mixture was mutagenic to the histidine auxotroph Salmonella typhimurium strains TA 100 and TA 98 in microsomal activation tests or to TA 1950 and 1951 in host-mediated assay [12].
• Spores of Bacillus stearothermophilus in standardized spore strips are pretreated with solutions of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, patulin, rubratoxin B, and diacetoxyscirpenol and subsequently incubated in a nutrient solution containing bromocresol purple as pH indicator [13].

Biological context of patulin

• Localized upregulation of a new expansin gene predicts the site of leaf formation in the tomato meristem [14].
• Rice and Arabidopsis expansin cDNAs were identified from collections of anonymous cDNAs (expressed sequence tags) [15].
• To evaluate their hypothesized role in cell growth, we genetically manipulated expansin gene expression in Arabidopsis thaliana and assessed the consequent changes in growth and cell-wall properties [16].
• Comparison of expansin cDNAs from cucumber, pea, Arabidopsis and rice shows that the proteins are highly conserved in size and amino acid sequence [17].
• The genome projects have revealed numerous expansin-related sequences but their putative wall-loosening functions remain to be assessed [18].

Anatomical context of patulin

• The control of single-celled cotton fiber elongation by developmentally reversible gating of plasmodesmata and coordinated expression of sucrose and K+ transporters and expansin [19].
• In this study, we analysed whether members of the expansin gene family are specifically and developmentally regulated during syncytium formation in the roots of Arabidopsis thaliana [20].
• Enlargement of the cell wall requires separation of cellulose microfibrils, mediated by proteins such as expansin; according to the multi-net growth hypothesis, enlargement passively reorients microfibrils [21].
• The data show that both T-2 toxin and patulin are highly toxic to rat alveolar macrophages in vitro [22].
• Inhibition of translation in reticulocyte lysate by the mycotoxin patulin [23].

Associations of patulin with other chemical compounds

• By contrast, blocking the endogenous ethylene pathway, either by genetic mutations or by a chemical inhibitor, did not affect normal root hair formation and expansin gene expression [9].
• In the growing cell wall, expansin action is likely to catalyze slippage between cellulose microfibrils and the polysaccharide matrix, and thereby catalyze wall stress relaxation, followed by wall surface expansion and plant cell enlargement [24].
• An expansin gene, LeExp2, was isolated from auxin-treated, etiolated tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum cv T5) hypocotyls [25].
• Isoepoxydon, a new metabolite of the patulin pathway in Penicillium urticae [26].
• Produciton and biological activity of patulin and citrinin from Penicillium expansum [27].
• Pretreatment of the calcium chelator EGTA could also restore mature cell walls' susceptibility to expansin by removing calcium from mature cell walls [28].

Gene context of patulin

• Mycotoxin patulin activates the p38 kinase and JNK signaling pathways in human embryonic kidney cells [29].
• Activation of ERK mitogen-activated protein kinase in human cells by the mycotoxin patulin [30].
• Furthermore, 3 ng/mL patulin caused a significant increase of IL-4 but a significant suppression of IFN-gamma [31].
• For IL-4 release the corresponding ID(50) values were 21.6 microg/mL citrinin, 82.8 ng/mL gliotoxin, and 243.2 ng/mL patulin [31].
• Root hair formation: F-actin-dependent tip growth is initiated by local assembly of profilin-supported F-actin meshworks accumulated within expansin-enriched bulges [32].

Analytical, diagnostic and therapeutic context of patulin

• HPLC fractionation of the crude wall protein from tomato leaves yielded an active fraction containing a major 27 kDa protein that cross-reacts with an antibody raised against cucumber expansin [33].
• Western blots likewise indicated higher expansin abundance in the roots at low psi w [34].
• We used PCR to screen a cDNA library of 5-7-day-old syncytia for expansin transcripts with primers differentiating between 26 alpha- and three beta-expansin cDNAs [20].
• Secondly, ethylene upregulates one expansin A gene (RpEXPA1), as measured with real-time RT-PCR, out of a group of 13 R. palustris expansin A genes tested [35].
• Finally, a fluorescence competitive immunoassay was developed for the on-line detection of patulin [1].

References